The Sign of the Loincloth: Jeremiah (13:1-11) :: essays research papers fc

The Sign of the Loincloth: Jeremiah (13:1-11)      The initial eleven stanzas of part thirteen of Jeremiah are an exceptionally unmistakable bit of an effectively one of a kind book. Jeremiah’s vision of the indication of the undergarment is a well-to-do section whose profundity can't be completely comprehended without an appropriate analytical investigation. I mean on doing an exposition on this section of Jeremiah. The language and images utilized held hugeness effortlessly comprehended by the first crowd, yet are hard to grasp by current crowds. The primary importance of this piece isn't the destruction of the individuals of Judah, rather the absence of a contribution of expectation which for the most part goes with the predictions and dreams of Jeremiah. The multifaceted nature of the section, combined with the profundity of academic examination going with it make it a difficult, yet satisfying entry for a more profound interpretative investigation.      The prophet Jeremiah forecasted for an extensive stretch of time. Most researchers concur that the dates for the profession of Jeremiah start at some point around 630 BC and end at some point not long after the fall of Judah to the Babylonians in 586 BC. The book of Jeremiah is a structure featuring this long vocation spreading over various years and a similarly various number of rulers. J.A. Thompson, in his analysis on Jeremiah, features that the dates for this entry are difficult to limit, yet numerous researchers line up with one specific understanding. He accepts that the date for the initial entry of section thirteen happened at some point around the skirmish of Carchemish in 605 B.C. After this fight, Jehoiakim, King of Judah, moved his primary union from Egypt to Nebuchadreaazr of Babylon. His rationale for this date is sound. Overman 2 He demonstrated that the idea of the piece is illustrative of a move of both force and loyalty. During this timespan, Babylon and somewhat Assyria reappeared as the prevalent powers in the Ancient Near East. The reappearance of Babylon as the predominant country carried them into a closer association with the realm of Judah, in this way carrying the Babylonian strength into the cutting edge of Jewish idea, particularly for the prophetic group. The best worry for the prophets, including Jeremiah, would have been the arrival of the Babylonian divine beings Baal and Asheroth to the cutting edge of Jewish love. The Jewish individuals, especially the realm of Judah, had since quite a while ago pivoted their faithfulness between Yahwehistic adore and the love of Babylonian ripeness divine beings. Thompson contends, and is concurred with by numerous researchers including J.

Training Muscles of the Abdominal Wall to Optimize their Function

As per Fredrick Hatfield, the stomach divider is comprised of four muscles. These incorporate inward sideways muscles, outer angled muscles, transverse abdominis and rectus abdominis (Hatfield, 2010). Be that as it may, different muscles exist for instance the spinal erectae and muscles in the pelvic support. Every one of these muscles has a particular capacity and utilizations explicit types of activity to upgrade its capacities. In this paper, I will investigate elements of these muscles and how they can be prepared for ideal functioning.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Training Muscles of the Abdominal Wall to Optimize their Function explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The rectus abdominis, likewise called the ‘six pack’, is the most conspicuous of every single muscular strength if very much created. This muscle upgrades the flexion of the middle through withdrawal. This is on the grounds that it joins the pubic unresolved iss ue lower side of the chest consequently flexing the middle towards the hips. To enhance the capacity of this muscle, I will utilize leg lifts which permit it to contract in an isometric way in this way balancing out the pelvis. The adjustment of the pelvic locale assists with enhancing back torment (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, standard. 5). Another activity incorporates crunches (moving the middle to the hips) and opposite crunches (moving hips to the middle). Be that as it may, Hatfield disheartens stomach crunches for fat individuals as they cause mental torment. Moreover, failure to perform rehashed developments, for example, plunking down or getting up is humiliating (Hatfield, 2010). The outside angled muscle appends the ribs to the hips and rectus abdominis. This muscle permits the spine to turn and wind. Along with inside slanted, they can be advanced by utilizing practices which include turning and curving of the spine. These activities incorporate wood chips, side pack, bikes , tennis, racket, golf and baseball (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, standard. 5-7). The inside slanted then again is arranged a contrary way to outside diagonal. Along with the outer diagonal muscle, they are engaged with curving, side bowing and revolution of the middle. For these muscles, I will utilize practices which include revolution of the body trunk to upgrade their capacity. Because of their consolidated activity, inside angled and outer sideways muscles likewise use practices which include stomach and sidewall constrictions (Livestrong.com, standard. 8). The transverse abdominis not at all like the inner slanted, outside diagonal and rectus abdominis doesn't make the storage compartment move. Subsequently, I will utilize practices that cause constrained termination and internal development of the stomach divider to upgrade elements of the transverse abdominis. Such activities incorporate front and side board works out. Practicing the transverse abominis is significant as it is less utilized in numerous meetings of preparing. Moreover, usage of this muscle gives an individual a slimmer build as it pulls the stomach divider inwards. (Muscular strength Anatomy, standard 4).Advertising Looking for article on wellbeing medication? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The rectus abdominis permits drawing together of the pelvis and ribcage, pelvis adjustment, constrained termination and ousting of pee and stomach substance. Along these lines the key capacity of the rectus abdominis is a consequence of its longitudinal direction which causes the spine to keep up a stable lumbar ebb and flow (Abdominal Muscle Anatomy, par.10). To prepare the rectus abdominis muscle, I will utilize crunch activities and converse crunch works out. Electro-myographic considers have demonstrated that upper segments of rectus abdominis are utilized more in crunch practices without weight. With expansion of weight, crunch practices are utilized all over this muscle. Additionally, switch crunches use lower Rectus abdominis, the interior slanted and the outside diagonal. In any case, Hatfield recommends that all segments of rectus abdominis (both lower and upper) are utilized in crunch practices not at all like the boundless conviction that solitary a specific segment is utilized (Hatfield, 2005). Different activities that I will use to prepare abs incorporate Russian turns, side twists, hanging leg works out, situated plate turns, adjusted side board and a mix of machine preparing and stomach crunches. The accompanying areas portray how these activities are utilized. The Russian turns utilize inner sideways and outer slanted muscles. This is on the grounds that swinging and turning practices during Russian turns apply weight on inward slanted and outer diagonal muscles in this way helping the waist (Livestrong.com, standard. 2). Then again, hanging leg-raises apply more weight on stomach divider muscles than cr unches. Notwithstanding, Hatfield lean towards turn around crunches to hanging leg-raises as hanging leg-raises apply a great deal of pressure and don't utilize stomach muscles. They rather utilize hip flexors and different muscles of the fore arm (Hatfield, 2005). Side curves, similar to crunch works out, help in settling the back. This is on the grounds that it utilizes interior and outside sideways including different muscles like quadratus lumborum. When utilizing the side curves, the customer twists sideways while holding a free weight (Hatfield, 2005). The outside slanted and interior diagonal muscles are pre-extended by the arm which is behind the head. This upgrades capacity of inside and outer slanted muscles (Body and Fitness, standard. 6-7). A mix of machine preparing and stomach crunch is a full range approach that I will use to prepare muscular strength. Hatfield alludes to bended back selling as the best case of this blend. This is on the grounds that it utilizes an ov erhead pulley that settles the back in this way diminishing back torment and giving a full range way to deal with preparing (Livestrong.com, standard. 3-8).Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Training Muscles of the Abdominal Wall to Optimize their Function explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More likewise, when utilizing situated plate turns, I will teach the customer to perform side to side pivots while contacting the plate on the floor in a sitting situation with the legs loosened up. Situated plate turns apply weight on interior sideways and outside diagonal muscles hence upgrading their capacity (Body and Fitness, standard. 3-6). Information on different stomach muscles and how they can be utilized in preparing is exceptionally basic in preparing my customers, loved ones. Applying stomach practices in muscular strength preparing is a significant exercise which I will use to lessen occurrences of back agony in my customers. This is on the ground s that a solid stomach divider assists with balancing out the back along these lines decreasing back torment (Hatfield, 2010). Besides, I will utilize activities, for example, front board and side board activities to prepare the transverse abdominis muscle in this manner giving my customers the thin profile they want. This is not normal for the dietary methodology I had at first utilized for my customers to upgrade weight reduction. In preparing my customers, loved ones, I will apply the information picked up that the upper and lower segments of the midsection (rectus abdominis) are not really separated by practices like crunches and opposite crunches. This is on the grounds that all activities produce pressure similarly through a muscular strength and there is no upper or lower area that is detached (Hatfield, 2005). During my preparation works out, I won't make a difference hanging leg practices for muscular strength preparing as they don't create stomach divider muscles yet rathe r create hip flexor muscles. Since Hatfield recommends that â€Å"there are numerous stomach activities, and there are similarly the same number of stomach work out devices†, it is essential that I settle on the fitting decisions during preparing to address the issues of my family, customers and companions (Hatfield, 2010). This is on the grounds that an educated decision on structures regarding activities to utilize will bring about ideal muscle work in this manner giving a solid spine to work out. References Abdominal Muscle Anatomy. Web.Advertising Searching for paper on wellbeing medication? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Body and Fitness: Inspiring past games. Recovered from http://www.body-fitness.nl/content/preparing/buiktraining.asp Hatfield, F.C. (2005). Wellness: The total manual for hand weight preparing. Santa Clause Barbara, CA: International Sports and Sciences Association. Hatfield, F. C. (2010). Wellness: The total guide. Santa Clause Barbara, CA: International Sports and Sciences Association. Livestrong.com: Oblique muscular strength works out. Web. This exposition on Training Muscles of the Abdominal Wall to Optimize their Function was composed and presented by client Karla H. to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; be that as it may, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

7 Ways to Boost Your Mood With Food

7 Ways to Boost Your Mood With Food February 03, 2020 Brandon Dimcheff/Moment/Getty Images More in Self-Improvement Holistic Health Happiness Meditation Stress Management Spirituality Inspiration Brain Health Technology Relationships If you sometimes indulge in sweets when stressed or upset, you know how immediately satisfying they can be. But all too often, they result in a quick blood sugar crash and irritability. Just as some foods can have a negative effect on your outlook, recent research explores whether eating certain foods can improve your mood and well-being.?? Heres a look at specific foods and eating habits that may help boost your mood: Eat  Foods Rich in Omega-3 Fatty Acids Growing evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids (abundant in oily fish such as sardines, salmon, and mackerel) may have a role in brain functioning, with deficiencies in omega-3 fatty acids linked to mental health problems.?? In a study published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, for instance, researchers analyzed 26 previously published studies (involving 150,278 participants) that examined the association between fish consumption and the risk of depression. In their analysis of results, the study authors found that people who consumed the most fish were less likely to have depression symptoms.?? While this association doesnt prove causality, it suggests that rigorous clinical trials are needed to explore the role of omega-3 fatty acids in depression and mental health. Foods to Eat To increase your intake of omega-3 fatty acids, consume foods such as:Wild Alaskan salmonSardinesAnchoviesMackerelOther oily fishWalnutsFlax and chia seedsCanola oilPurslane (an herb) In addition to whole foods, good sources of omega-3s are fish oil, flaxseed oil, and echium oil, but its a good idea to check with your healthcare provider first if you are pregnant, nursing, take medication, or have any concerns. Pump Up on Probiotics Probiotics are best known for their role in digestive health, but emerging research suggests that bacteria in the gut sends and receives signals to the brain (known as the gut-brain axis).?? In a review published in Annals of General Psychiatry  in 2017, researchers analyzed 10 previously published studies and found that the majority of studies found positive effects of probiotics on depression symptoms.?? While promising, the studys authors noted a wide variation in probiotic strain, dose, and treatment duration, and that further studies were needed to test efficacy. Consumption of a probiotic supplement was found to improve both gut symptoms and depression in people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), according to a study published in Gastroenterology in 2017.?? Participants took either a probiotic supplement (Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001) or a placebo daily for 10 weeks. After six weeks, 64 percent of those taking the probiotic had decreased depression symptoms, compared to 32 percent of those taking the placebo. Whats more, the improvement in depression symptoms was associated with changes in the activity in brain areas involved in mood. Foods to Eat Increase your intake of probiotics with foods including:YogurtKefirButtermilkSauerkrautKorean kimchiMisoTempehPickled vegetables Take note, however, that it is possible for someone who is immunocompromised to contract an infectionâ€"fungemia or bacteremiaâ€"from probiotic supplements. Talk to your doctor before starting a course of probiotics. Reach For Whole Grains Whole grains are important sources of B vitamins, nutrients vital for brain health. For example, thiamin (vitamin B1) is involved in turning glucose into energy, pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is needed to produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (involved in learning and memory), vitamin B6 helps to convert the amino acid tryptophan into serotonin, and vitamin B12 is involved in the production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, among others, all of which help to regulate mood. Foods to Eat Look for grains in their whole form, such as:Steel-cut oatmealQuinoaBrown riceAmaranthMilletBulgurWild rice Whole grain foods can be confusing. A rule of thumb when reading food labels is that for every 5 grams of carbohydrate, a product should have at least one gram of dietary fiber to be considered whole grain. Opt For a Regular, Nutritious Breakfast Eating breakfast regularly is associated with fewer depressive symptoms, according to some researchers. A 2017 study published in Appetite,  for instance, analyzed the survey responses of 207,710 people aged 20 years and over and found that those who said they ate breakfast seldom or sometimes had higher depressive symptoms than those who ate breakfast always.?? While the association doesnt prove that the depressive symptoms were caused by skipping breakfast, it suggests a possible role of regular breakfast on mood that should be explored further. Foods to Eat Choose foods rich in fiber, nutrients, and good fats. Oatmeal is rich in soluble fiber, which helps to smooth out blood sugar levels by slowing the absorption of sugar into the blood. Try a bowl of steel-cut oats. Other breakfast foods to include are citrus fruits, strawberries, apples, whole grains, and nuts.   Load Up on Leafy Green Vegetables Spinach and other green vegetables contain the B vitamin folate. Although the connection isnt fully understood, low folate levels have been consistently associated with depression in research. A study published in the Journal of Psychiatric Research in 2017, for instance, analyzed previous studies and found that people with depression had lower blood levels of folate and lower dietary intake of folate compared to those without depression.?? Folate deficiency may impair the metabolism of serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline (neurotransmitters important for mood), but further research is needed to understand the role of folate in depression and mental health. Several studies have found that greater vegetable and fruit consumption is associated with a decreased risk of depression.?? One study published in 2017 found that a beverage made from wild blueberries increased positive mood in children and young adults.?? Foods to Eat Folate-rich vegetables include:SpinachEdamameArtichokesOkraTurnip greensLentilsAvocadoBroccoli Folate is also plentiful in beans and lentils, with a cup of cooked lentils providing 90 percent of the recommended daily allowance. Dont take folic acid supplements without consulting your health care provider. In some cases, it may cause adverse effects and there are potential risks for  some people (such as those who have had colon polyps or cancer). Enjoy Caffeine in Moderation Caffeine has been found to trigger the release of brain chemicals such as dopamine, which is important for performance and mood. A study published in Molecular Nutrition and Food Research in 2016, for instance, analyzed 12 previously published studies and concluded that coffee consumption (and to a lesser extent, tea) had a protective effect on the risk of depression.?? In the study above, the intake that had the greatest effect was 400 mL of coffee (approximately 1 2/3 cups) per day. Caffeine affects everyone differently, so if coffee makes you jittery, irritable, sad, sleepless, or brings on other adverse effects, avoid drinking it (opting for caffeine-free beverages like rooibos tea) or choose lower-caffeine beverages like black tea or green tea. Another option is chai. An Indian tea made with black tea plus the addition of spices such as cardamom and cinnamon, chais spices add a natural sweetness to the tea, which may help you cut back on sugar and sweeteners. Enrich Your Diet With Foods High in Vitamin D Known as the sunshine vitamin, this nutrient is made naturally in the body when skin is exposed to the suns ultraviolet B (UVB) rays. In the past few years, research has suggested that vitamin D may increase the levels of serotonin, one of the key neurotransmitters influencing our mood, and that deficiency may be linked with  mood disorders, particularly seasonal affective disorder.?? In addition, preliminary research suggests that vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for depression in older adults.?? Some people are at greater risk for a vitamin D deficiency. Darker skin, for instance, has more melanin, a substance that blocks ultraviolet rays. Working indoors during the day, living further from the equator, or being in an area with greater air pollution also increase your risk of vitamin D deficiency. Foods to Eat Canned salmon with bones is rich in vitamin D and is also a source of  omega-3 fatty acids. Look for Alaskan pink salmon or sockeye salmon with bones. Other foods include:CheeseEgg yolksFoods that may be fortified with vitamin D (milk, soy milk, and orange juice) A Word From Verywell Small dietary changes can make a big difference in how you feel over time. While the research on food and mood is in the early stages, many of these foods can keep you healthy for other reasons. It may be tempting to use  food to treat anxiety or depression, but more research is needed from large-scale clinical trials. If you have depression or any condition, its important to seek help from your health care provider.

Essay On Scaffolds - 819 Words

Currently, there is a global increase in cases of bone disorders and conditions, which is expected to increase as twice as much by 2020 particularly in countries where obesity and poor physical activity are associated with aging[1]. Although reconstructive orthopaedic surgery can be used to treat bone defects and injuries caused by trauma, additional treatments are required for severe breaks or pathological conditions as well as critical bone defects due to malformation, cancer or osteoporosis in order to effectively stimulate healing and regeneration. While traditional autologous and allogeneic bone grafting is ineffective for treating large injuries because of lack of graft vascularization, low cell viability in the host, and other†¦show more content†¦Poly (ÃŽ µ-caprolactone) is an aliphatic polyester that is commonly used for biomedical applications as well as for tissue engineering and drug delivery. The physical and biological properties of PCL makes it a useful biomed ical material[7]. Because PCL contains five CH2 Moieties in its repeating units, it doesnt degrade quickly which makes it suitable for commercial sutures or delivery devices as well as for applications requiring a long term load[8]. In addition, due to the fact that the aliphatic ester linkage of PCL is susceptible to hydrolysis, it is likely to undergo hydrolytic degradation [4, 5, 9]. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a good material for preparing scaffolds because its material properties can be modified to be more extensive by adjusting the molecular range as well as the lactic acid (LA)/glycolic acid (GA) ratios, unlike the poor characteristics exhibited by pure polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid. PLGA has been extensively used in bone tissue engineering in various ways (7-10). It is widely believed that the mechanical properties of bone tissue can be supported by PLGA scaffolds which take about 4 to 8 weeks to construct [10-12]. The orange/yellow pigment that is responsibleShow MoreRelatedEssay On Scaffolds902 Words   |  4 Pagesinvolving tissue engineering, biological and synthetic laryngeal scaffolds have been of much interest in recent times (Lott 2014). Although laryngeal allotransplantations are able to relatively quickly restore some degree of function not obtainable via artificial systems, for now, they do not present as a viable outcome for restoring function until issues associated with immunogenicity are solved. Emerging solutions – biological larynx scaffolds Following recent developments in biomaterials research, theRead MoreEssay On Scaffolds972 Words   |  4 PagesDevelop 3D printable natural and synthetic polymer systems, for biological scaffolds, that are tough enough to produce highly complex parts with small internal features and porosity to allow for microvascular regrowth to attach onto the scaffolds. To obtain a scaffold with suitable mechanical and viscoelastic properties (Young’s modulus 0.35 ± .11 MPa, Tensile stiffness 8.59 ±3.5 MPa, Equil. Modulus 13.6 ±1.5 MPa), it is very important to choose the proper polymeric material and fabrication technique10Read MoreScaffold Plank Essay1758 Words   |  8 PagesDianne Estrada Management Strategy Kucinski September 9, 2010 THE SCAFFOLD PLANK INCIDENT OVERVIEW Bob Hopkins, a previous banker, accepted a â€Å"trader† position with White Lumber, who was one of the bank’s best accounts. John White, the owner of White Lumber, was a director at the bank Bob previously worked for and a leading citizen in the community. The â€Å"trader† position Bob accepted involved buying and selling lumber. Bob’s compensation was incentive-based without a salary cap. The ethicalRead More The Scaffold of Sin in The Scarlet Letter Essay1144 Words   |  5 PagesThe Scaffold of Sin in The Scarlet Letter   Ã‚  Ã‚   This scaffold constituted a portion of a penal machine . . . . The very ideal of ignominy was embodied and made manifest in this contrivance of wood and iron (Hawthorne 62-63). A scaffolds effect on the novel can be seen through an examination of the first, second, and third scaffold scenes.   These sections mark the beginning, middle, and end of the novel. The novel The Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, is constructedRead More Scarlet Letter Scaffold Scenes Essay655 Words   |  3 PagesNathaniel Hawthorneamp;#8217;s, The Scarlet Letter, the author uses three scaffold scenes to mark the development of Hester Prynne. The image of Hester atop the scaffolding is a metaphor for her forced solitude; for her banishment from society; and for the futility of her punishment. In the first scene, Hawthorne uses the scaffold to explain how Hester can not believe that the amp;#8220;A; and the baby are real. In the second scaffold scene, Hawthorne tries to convey to the reader that Hester has fullyRead MoreEssay on Symbolism of the Scaffold in The Scarlet Letter939 Words   |  4 Pagesmost important symbol among them is certainly the scaffold in the market place, where the story begins and ends. The scaffold’s meaning changes throughout the story and has different values for different characters. It represents humiliation, then insi ght, and finally redemption for Hester and Dimmesdale, but for Chillingworth, it symbolizes birth of sin, growth of sin, and ultimately consummation by sin. At the beginning of the story, the scaffold â€Å"constituted a portion of a penal machine† (48)Read MoreScaffold Scenes In The Scarlet Letter Essay892 Words   |  4 PagesNathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter, the author uses three scaffold scenes to represent the change in Hester Prynne. The image of Hester atop the scaffolding is a metaphor for her banishment from society, and for the pointlessness of her punishment. The three scaffold scenes have a numerous amount of similarities, but they also have quite a few differences. In the first scaffold scene, Hester Prynne and her child Pearl stand on the scaffold. Hester has just been released from prison, and she is sentRead More Character evolution through three scaffold scenes Essay961 Words   |  4 Pagessymbol is the scaffold. During this period in time, the scaffold was used for public humiliation. Those who had committed either a crime or a sin were forced to stand upon it in front of everybody in the town, as a form of confession or public recognition of one’s sin. In The Scarlet Letter, the scaffold not only represents the act of confessing but it also can be seen as a symbol of the stern, inflexible doctrine of the Puritan faith. The Scarlet Letter is centered on the three scaffold scenes, whichRead MoreEnders Game and the Matrix - Comparative Essay Practise Essay Scaffold - Science Fiction1597 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"In a comparative study of texts we see that the connections between texts are realised through the different textual f orms used by each composer.† How accurate is this statement for the pair of texts you have studied in this unit? In your answer you may like to discuss some or all of the following: form, structure, language features, context, information ideas. When texts are considered together, responders realise that texts are connected through their similar themes and ideas displayed inRead MoreHow Does the Scarlet Letter Comment on Religion in America? Essay754 Words   |  4 Pagestranscendental movement is also reflected in the novel. This essay argues that â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† condemns the Puritan society for its rigid and oppressive rules and generally it comments on the religion in America through portrayal of characters, setting and themes. Therefore this essay will describe how the characters, setting and themes in the Scarlet letter comment on the religion in America by exploring the scene of puritan morality, scaffold and through the interpretation of the Scarlet Letter â€Å"A†

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How to Be a Good Teacher Free Essays

Great English Teachers What are the characteristics of a good teacher of English? The traits range from great teaching and management strategies to a good attitude. Top Characteristics for Teachers There are 15 characteristics of effective teachers that range from having high expectations to being flexible and imaginative. These 15 characteristics can be placed into two categories: management and instructional techniques and personal traits. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Be a Good Teacher or any similar topic only for you Order Now To have strong classroom management and instructional techniques, an English teacher needs to try a variety of techniques to find the ones that work for him or her. Instructional Techniques English teachers need to teach reading, writing, viewing, listening, and speaking. These are five distinct areas, and each has its own set of benchmarks and indicators. Simply put, English teachers have a great deal of content to juggle in the classroom. The list of indicators for their content is quite long. They need to be knowledgeable of grammar, vocabulary, writing, literary elements, great novels, researching techniques, speech strategies, etc. In addition to being a master of content, teachers need to have a large repertoire of teaching strategies. Direct instruction, collaborative learning, and the jigsaw strategy, are just a few techniques that effective teachers use in the classroom. Variety is the key. So, the English teacher must be flexible and willing to try a variety of strategies to see what works best with his or her students. Management Techniques Good English teachers must have excellent classroom management techniques. If teachers cannot manage their students successfully, very little learning will occur in the classroom. With the No Child Left Behind Act and current state policy, it is important that students make gains in their learning every year. For young teachers, classroom management is usually a struggle. New teachers need to be willing to seek out seasoned teachers to mentor them on how to handle the classroom properly and to try different classroom management strategies. Personality Traits Usually, the three most important personality traits are a flexible approach, a caring attitude, and a sense of humor. There are, of course, other personality traits that enable teachers to become great teachers. However, in the current torrent of change in education, a teacher needs to be flexible to help a student. It also helps to be able to laugh and to keep smiling in this climate of change. It is very important that students feel that their teachers care about them. They need to feel safe in a supportive learning environment because this may be the only safe place that some children have. A safe, caring learning environment will help students to work to their true potential. Last, teachers need to have a sense of humor. So many things go wrong every day. It is important to be able to laugh and to keep going. The students need a happy teacher, not an angry one. The characteristics of a good teacher of English include many traits and strategies. English teachers need to do their best in implementing techniques in the classroom to help our nation’s children reach their learning potential Think back to your school days for a moment, who were your favorite teachers? Which ones did you learn more from and why? The chances are that they were ones who made your lessons â€Å"come alive†. Engage you in your lesson as opposed to the â€Å"talk and chalk† variety! Whilst having a sound academic background and knowledge of your subject is one thing, having the ability to relate to your students and convey your message in understandable, motivational terms is quite another. This means not only being able to relate to your learners but being able to adapt your material to suit their needs, and put it across in the most effective (personable? ) form, creating a positive, supportive learning environment. Teaching a Language Having been a teacher trainer for many years I have little time for the teacher who delivers the same lesson verbatim, year after year, without considering their individual students’ needs and learner types, or those whose ego is so large that they are unable to relate effectively to their students. To my mind, teaching a language requires different skills to teaching other subjects like History or Math. We don’t learn a language by talking about it; we learn a language by talking in it! Once a teacher has presented language, it is the students who should speak and use the language (as it is they who need the practice), and not the teacher talking the highest percentage of time – hence the term TTT -Teacher Taking Time. Language teachers also need to â€Å"rough tune† their language, speaking in terms that are slightly above the level of the learner, rather than over simplify (thus providing a false model) or bombard them with meta-language. Core Characteristics Carl Rogers, an American psychologist suggested there are three core teacher characteristics to help create an effective learning environment. †¢Respect: Being positive and non judgmental in regards to another person †¢Empathy: Being able to see things from another person’s point of view †¢Authenticity: Being yourself without egoistic barriers or hiding behind a job title These three qualities a far more likely to induce a more positive learning environment, where students are more inclined to take risks and take responsibility for their own learning. Communication between student and teacher becomes more open and honest and therefore a stronger bond emerges, based on mutual respect. These qualities should not be â€Å"clothes† that a teacher puts on in the classroom. They have to be genuine intentions. A good teacher is one who not only has knowledge of their subject but has the personality to convey it in engaging, motivational terms. Therefore demonstration and participation rather than explanation is often more effective. In short: An effective language teacher is one that cares more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching! Top 10 Tips for Teachers Teachers are often placed into an awkward and stressful situation, not really sure of their authority and sometimes not even placed with veteran teachers who are much help. These tips can aid student teachers as they begin their first teaching assignments. Please note: these are not suggestions for how to approach the students but instead for how to most effectively succeed in your new teaching environment. 1. Be On Time Punctuality is very important in the ‘real world’. If you are late, you will definitely NOT start out on the right foot with your cooperating teacher. Even worse, if you arrive after a class has begun which you are supposed to be teaching, you are placing that teacher and yourself in an awkward situation. 2. Dress Appropriately As a teacher, you are a professional and you are supposed to dress accordingly. There is nothing wrong with over dressing during your student teaching assignments. The clothes do help lend you an air of authority, especially if you look awfully young. Further, your dress lets the coordinating teacher know of your professionalism and dedication to your assignment. 3. Be Flexible Remember that the coordinating teacher has pressures placed upon them just as you have your own pressures to deal with. If you normally teach only 3 classes and the coordinating teacher asks that you take on extra classes one day because he has an important meeting to attend, look at this as your chance to get even further experience while impressing your dedication to your coordinating teacher. 4. Follow the School Rules This might seem obvious to some but it is important that you do not break school rules. For example, if it is against the rules to chew gum in class, then do not chew it yourself. If the campus is ‘smoke-free’, do not light up during your lunch period. This is definitely not professional and would be a mark against you when it comes time for your coordinating teacher and school to report on your abilities and actions. 5. Plan Ahead If you know you will need copies for a lesson, do not wait until the morning of the lesson to get them completed. Many schools have procedures that MUST be followed for copying to occur. If you fail to follow these procedures you will be stuck without copies and will probably look unprofessional at the same time. 6. Befriend the Office Staff This is especially important if you believe that you will be staying in the area and possibly trying for a job at the school where you are teaching. These people’s opinions of you will have an impact on whether or not you are hired. They can also make your time during student teaching much easier to handle. Don’t underestimate their worth. 7. Maintain Confidentiality Remember that if you are taking notes about students or classroom experiences to turn in for grades, you should either not use their names or change them to protect their identities. You never know who you are teaching or what their relationship might be to your instructors and coordinators. 8. Don’t Gossip It might be tempting to hang out in the teacher lounge and indulge in gossip about fellow teachers. However, as a student teacher this would be a very risky choice. You might say something you could regret later. You might find out information that is untrue and clouds your judgement. You might even offend someone without realizing it. Remember, these are teachers you could be working with again some day in the future. 9. Be Professional With Fellow Teachers Do not interrupt other teachers’ classes without an absolutely good reason. When you are speaking with your coordinating teacher or other teachers on campus, treat them with respect. You can learn a lot from these teachers, and they will be much more likely to share with you if they feel that you are genuinely interested in them and their experiences. 10. Don’t Wait to the Last Minute to Call in Sick You will probably get sick at some point during your student teaching and will need stay home for the day. You must remember that the regular teacher will have to take over the class during your absence. If you wait until the last minute to call in, this could leave them in an awkward bind making them look bad to the students. Call as soon as you believe you will not be able to make it to class. How to cite How to Be a Good Teacher, Papers

Strategic Human Resource Management for Enhancing-myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theStrategic Human Resource Management for Enhancing. Answer: Introduction Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) is a process of enticing, enhancing and retaining the human resources for the advantage of both individuals and organization as well. Strategic human resource management is directly or indirectly linked with the performance and competitive advantage of the organization (Ployhart and Moliterno, 2011). This paper includes the discussion about how strategic human resource management helps an organization in gaining competitive advantage against its competitors. In order to discuss this topic, following is the annotated bibliography to analyze the impact of SHRM on firms performance and competitive advantage in todays business environment. There are four articles from different authors, which are used to discuss this issue. The discussion of each article includes the purpose of study, main points of the article, and further it consists of the findings of the articles. All the articles are relevant to the given topic and state different views of different authors. Annotated Bibliography Cania, L. 2014, The Impact of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Performance, Economic Seria Management, Volume 17, Issue 2. The major purpose of this article is to focus on the impact of strategic human resource management in attaining a better performance of organization. In this article, the study was conducted on the basis of primary sources. Author states that human resource management is very important for an organization to stay competitive in the market by attaining its performance indicators. In addition, it states that by improving and enhancing the skills, behaviors and attitudes of human resources, the organization can attain its expected performance and competitive advantage against its competitors. It defines the relationship between strategic human resource management and competitive advantage by defining the role of SHRM for organizational performance. The article found that strategic human resource management is used for getting effective outcomes from individuals, teams and organization as whole. In this process, the organization can develop this process by planning goals and objectives, setting required standards and developing some core competence requirements. Furthermore, it states that effective use of knowledge, competencies and skills of employees will make it possible to attain organizational performance and competitive advantage. This source is relevant and reliable, as it provides a roper research on the given topic. Delery, J.E. and Roumpi, D, 2017, Strategic Human Resource Management, Human Capital and Competitive Advantage: is the Field going in Circles, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1. The objective of this article is twofold with the stiffness between human capital and Strategic Human Resource Management. The author started with a short review of the conceptual logic connection of management of HRM practices and firm outcomes. Thus, the final goal of this article is emphasize on the argument between SHRM and human capital research in relation to treatment of resource based firms. The article includes a model, which recommends that practices of human resource management are not just pillars, which makes the firm able to attain sustainable competitive advantage as many of the human capital assumes. In contrast, the article found that human resources management processes can assist to the competitive advantage of firm not only by improving the ability of employees and providing opportunities and motivation, but also by building demand-side and supply-side flexibility restraints. This article is totally relevant to the given topic, as it states the importance of strat egic human resource management in enhancing the strategic performance and competitive advantage of a firm in todays competitive business environment. Jalagat, R.C, 2016, A Critical Review of Strategic Human Resource Management and Organizational Performance, Global Journal of Advanced Research, Vol. 3, Issue-10. The major purpose of this article is to analyze the considerable relationship between organizational performance as an element of competitive advantage and high performance working system as a major element of strategic human resource management. Furthermore, this article studies the link between business strategy and human resource strategy. The findings of the article supported that the relationship between both the elements and performance of organization in both the financial and non-financial terms. In this article, the author states that the human resource strategy of the company should be linked with the business strategy, because it assists in satisfying the customers and maintaining the commitment and dedication of customers for the firm to gain sustainable and successful competitive advantage. It indicates that there is an indirect relationship between HR strategy and competitive strategy of organization. This relationship shows the relevancy of the article to the given iss ue. Qehaja, A.B. Kutllovci, E, 2015, The Role of Human Resources in Gaining Competitive Advantage, Journal of Human Resource Management. In this article, the author states that human resources are significant source of competitive advantage in the organizations. In this article, the study was conducted in seven wholesaler distribution firms of non-food and food items in the Kosovo. A survey was conducted on 35 managers and directors in these firms. The article stated that these firms are not considering the human resources in gaining competitive advantage. So, they do not adopt any strategy for the development of human resources. The research found that the firms should have more strategic human resource practices, as the firms with more human resource practices have greater market value and position. The results show that these firms may have more competitive advantage. Definitely, this article is relevant to the management of human resources and its impact on the competitive advantage against its competitors. There should be an effective strategic human management in the firms to deal with all the strategic and admi nistrative issues. Discussion In the above discussion, there are four articles, which significantly emphasize on the importance of strategic human resource management on organizational performance and competitive advantage (Kehoe and Wright, 2013). All four articles support the issue that strategic human resource management help an organization in attaining competitive advantage. For an organization, it is true that there should be a standard strategy to manage their human capital, as it in turn will have positive impact on performance of organization (Armstrong, 2009). Each and every organization should be familiar with all the theoretical aspects, which are required to manage the human resources. These aspects will assist the organization to motivate the employees and satisfy the customers. Managing the human resources strategically enhances the financial performance of the organization like; profits and sales growth. It enhances its competitive advantage in the industry. From the research in last article, it c an be argued that it is essential for an organization to adopt strategies and strategic human resource management to stay competitive in the market (Barney Clark, 2007). Recommendations On the basis of results and findings of all the articles, it can be stated that strategic human resource management plays a vital role in overall success of organization. The firms should value its employees as human assets, as they are a significant source of competitive advantage. They should make investment in best and talented human resources by making them more professional. In addition, they should have unique strategies for human resources and implement them in administrative work. They should use effective practices for human resource management, like; training and development, motivation, recruitment and selection and performance appraisal. From the above analysis, it can be said that the organizations should establish the man power as valuable source of competitive advantage to the organization. References Armstrong, M.A, 2009, A Handbook of Human Resources Management. (11th ed.).London: Kogan Page. Barney, J. B., Clark, D. N, 2007, Resource-based theory: Creating and sustaining competitive advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press Cania, L. 2014, The Impact of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Performance, Economic Seria Management, Volume 17, Issue 2. Delery, J.E. and Roumpi, D, 2017, Strategic Human Resource Management, Human Capital and Competitive Advantage: is the Field going in Circles, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1. Jalagat, R.C, 2016, A Critical Review of Strategic Human Resource Management and Organizational Performance, Global Journal of Advanced Research, Vol. 3, Issue-10. Kehoe, R.R. and Wright, P.M, 2013, The impact of high-performance human resource practices on employees attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Management, 39: 2, 366391. Ployhart, R.E. and Moliterno, T.P, 2011, Emergence of the human capital resource: a multilevel model. Academy of Management Review, 36: 1, 127150 Qehaja, A.B. Kutllovci, E, 2015, The Role of Human Resources in Gaining Competitive Advantage, Journal of Human Resource Management.

Four Star Motorsports-Pricing Essay Example

Four Star Motorsports-Pricing Paper Deliverable 3- Four Star Motorsports Course: 07360, Pricing Strategy - Student: Jing Wang, Yu-Wen Chu * Using regression, estimate the demand curves for each type of tire in each type of demand season (low, medium, high). I recommend that you use Excel to do the regressions. (Note: demand for the two sizes of tire are independent from one another). Yokohama Winter Rally Tire Demand Curve | WR 26 155/65R13| WR 26 185/65R14| Normal Demand| Q=106. 4-0. 544P| Q=104. 8-0. 448P| High Demand| Q=86. 28571-0. 33143P| Q=94. 714-0. 3314P| Low Demand| Q=155. 2-0. 704P| Q=132. 8-0. 704*P| * What is the optimal â€Å"one-price† policy for Sprongl’s rally tires if he sticks with his â€Å"base prices† for the entire year? (Assume his goal is to have no residual inventory and to maximize total revenue). Tire Type| WR 26155/65R13| WR 26185/65R14| Inventory| 280| 265| | | | Price| $150. 82| 159. 8190703| | | | Period 1| 49. 02| 20. 29| Period 2| 24. 35| 33. 20| Period 3| 36. 30| 4 1. 61| Period 4| 24. 35| 33. 20| Period 5| 36. 30| 41. 61| Period 6| 24. 35| 33. 20| Period 7| 36. 30| 41. 61| Period 8| 49. 2| 20. 29| | | | Demand| $280. 00| 265. 00| | | | | | | Revenue| $42,229. 98| $42,352. 05| * If Sprongl elects to use â€Å"dynamic pricing† by changing prices for each tire in each season, what are the optimal prices if his estimated demand curves are estimated correctly? (Note: there is no global optimum solution for this in Solver but several â€Å"local optima† that are similar. I recommend that you calculate the optimum pricing for each tire separately, and then sum the total revenue from each). * What are the pros and cons of fixed and dynamic pricing in this situation? Explain your reasoning. Fixed pricing: Pros: 1. Fixed pricing establishes optimal â€Å"one-price† policy for Sprongl’s two different rally tires. There will be neither haggling nor competition from other period’s price. 2. There will be no arbitrage so that Four Star Sports can easily predict and monitor the inventory. Cons: Resulting either in money left on the table or lost sales Dynamic Pricing: Pros: http://news. wustl. edu/news/Pages/4382. aspx http://smallbusiness. chron. com/dynamic-pricing-strategy-5117. html http://faculty. insead. du/popescu/ioana/Papers/PopescuWu. pdf http://www. meiss. com/download/RM-Maglaras-Meissner. pdf 1. Dynamic pricing strategy enables Four Star Motorsports maximize the profit margin and maximize the revenue from *** to *** Cons: 2. The dynamic pricing needs comprehensive data and testing to work well, in this case, we only had very limited data to find our dynamic pricing strategy, which might not reflect the true demand curv e. 3. It also requires advances in point-of-sale technology and widespread adoption of electronic labels for inventory management. We will write a custom essay sample on Four Star Motorsports-Pricing specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Four Star Motorsports-Pricing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Four Star Motorsports-Pricing specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This may increase the cost dramatically. Considering Four Star Sports is a family business, and their revenue may not be high enough to support this expense on new technology. 4. Customers might feel unfair that the same products are charged at different prices. 5. The dynamic pricing may lead to arbitrage, customers with high price elasticity may shift to the low price period to purchase the rally tires; On the other hand some smart people may purchase more than they need during the low price period then to sell at high price period. These will change the demand curve and the competition environment dramatically and influence the inventory management. 6. Dynamic pricing strategy suits frequent purchased consumer goods market better, because the customers’ purchase decisions are heavily influenced by the past observed price. In this case, customer may not purchase rally tires very often, thus the history price has less influence on their decision making.

4 Important Qualities of Women Leaders

4 Important Qualities of Women Leaders When it comes to leadership, does gender matter? Is there a difference between women leaders and men who lead? If so, what are the unique qualities of female leadership that the most effective women leaders possess, and are they unique to women? Caliper Study In 2005, a year-long study conducted by Caliper, a Princeton, New Jersey-based management consulting firm, and Aurora, a London-based organization that advances women, identified a number of characteristics that distinguish women leaders from men when it comes to qualities of leadership: Women leaders are more assertive and persuasive, have a stronger need to get things done and are more willing to take risks than male leaders... Women leaders were also found to be more empathetic and flexible, as well as stronger in interpersonal skills than their male counterparts... enabl[ing] them to read situations accurately and take information in from all sides... These women leaders are able to bring others around to their point of view... because they genuinely understand and care about where others are coming from... so that the people they are leading feel more understood, supported and valued. Four Qualities of Women Leaders The Caliper study findings are summarized into four specific statements about womens leadership qualities: Women leaders are more persuasive than their male counterparts.When feeling the sting of rejection, women leaders learn from adversity and carry on with an Ill show you attitude.Women leaders demonstrate an inclusive, team-building leadership style of problem-solving and decision making.Women leaders are more likely to ignore rules and take risks. In her book Why the Best Man for the Job is a Woman: The Unique Female Qualities of Leadership, author Esther Wachs Book examined the careers of fourteen top female executives- among them Meg Whitman, President, and CEO of eBay- to learn what makes them so successful. What she discovered echoes the Caliper study, including a willingness to reinvent the rules; an ability to sell their visions; the determination to turn challenges into opportunities; and a focus on high touch in a high-tech business world. Conclusions This evidence that the leadership style of women in power is not simply unique, but possibly at odds with what men practice, begs the question: Do these qualities have value in the marketplace? Is this type of leadership welcomed by society and by the public and private sector? Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, the World YWCA Secretary-General, says attitudes toward leadership are changing, and what women offer is essential: Domination as a leadership style is becoming less and less popular. There is a new growing appreciation of...those traits that women use to keep families together and to organize volunteers to unite and make change in the shared life of communities. These newly admired leadership qualities of shared leadership; nurturance and doing good for others are today not only sought after but also indeed needed to make a difference in the world....A feminine way of leading includes helping the world to understand and be principled about values that really matter. Sources:   Women Leaders Study: The Qualities That Distinguish Women Leaders.  Caliperonline.com.Kanyoro, Musimbi. Challenges to Womens Leadership. Speech in honor of YWCA of Salt Lake centennial celebration. 13 July 2006.Are Women Natural Leaders, and Men†¦the Opposite? KnowledgeWharton, University of Pennsylvania 8 November 2000.

THE CAPTIVITY AND RESTORATION OF MRS. MARY ROWLANDSON Essay

THE CAPTIVITY AND RESTORATION OF MRS. MARY ROWLANDSON - Essay Example s though, the presence of the English were clearly threatening their control of the territory in which they have already established agricultural interests. However, Mrs. Rowlandson, who was captured by the Native Americans, was able to observe the cultural values of her captors. During her captivity, she was able to realize that the Native Americans did have their own degree of civilization although this may not fall within the standards of the Europeans. Just like the rest of the colonists though, Mrs. Rowlandson actually had the impression that the Native Americans were plainly uncivilized brutes. In the narrative, that attack made by Native Americans on the English population only reinforced her very negative impression. She wrote that â€Å"on the tenth of February 1675, came the Indians with great numbers upon Lancaster.†1 She then proceeded to describe the brutality that the Native Americans attacked every household in the community. It was during the attack also that her home was burned down by the raiders and she and the members of her family were abducted. Her children were separated from her. The only one that was with her as she was carried away by a group of Native Americans was her youngest child, who was still a baby. It was not only her prejudice of the Native Americans that made her conclude at this point that they were indeed heathens. What she saw was more than enough to strengthen such notion. However, her r eligiousness might have been a factor also. Apparently, she had not exactly seen hell but when she saw how the Native Americans celebrate, she described the place as a â€Å"lively resemblance of hell.†2 During the course of her captivity though, she began to notice that the Native Americans are not at all the savages that she thought they are. This perspective was developed during that time when she was already made to work for those whom she considered ‘masters.’ It was also at that time when she noticed that the Native

W2A 590 Whole foods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

W2A 590 Whole foods - Essay Example The welfare of employees in terms health insurance cover, compensation and development are well taken care of. Associates even contribute in the recruitment process for their potential colleagues and the recruitment process aims at tapping top talent. With such autonomy, independence and great teamwork the associates are motivated and this translates into exceptional customer service. Top management at Whole Foods Market strongly believes in building a shared identity where all team members participate. Management therefore encourage all associates to take part in the daily decision making process at all business levels. Employees are empowered to contribute to decisions on the benefit options. The company has also adopted an open-book policy approach where every associate is allowed access to company financial information including compensation all employees. Transparency is regarded highly the management stresses company values such as collaboration and decentralization. At the store levels, associates are members of teams and engage with their team leaders proactively to voice their contributions on product lines and the leaders take that into consideration. Associates re given the authority to participate in the vetting potential employees before they are confirmed. The approach has seen the company attract associates sharing their core values maintain and re ward a workforce that is engaged and highly productive. One potential risk of the company’s democratic model of selecting new associates is that it could interfere with the development of a diverse workforce. With the direct involvement of every employee there always come issues such as bias and favouritism. Some of the store leaders or influential employees could recommend potential employees on personal considerations and therefore bit the logic of tapping talent whilst at the same time maintaining diversity. However this should not be a major problem if the HR function implements

Inter Firm Relationships in the Silicon Fen

Inter Firm Relationships in the Silicon Fen The attention that clusters have received from policy makers and academics has substantially increased in the last 20 years. Since Porters seminal work on The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990) presented clusters as one of the determinants of the international competitiveness of nations and regions, many scholars have adopted and further developed his approach. Porter bases his arguments on what he describes as the globalization paradox, pointing out that despite the logical implications that the globalisation process might have in dismissing the relevance of regional factors, the most competitive firms in world are located in groups geographically concentrated in specific locations. That perspective contributed to attracting attention to the existence of characteristics tied to a local context that could not be accessed by firms positioned elsewhere, and more, to the positive effects that the concentration and the geographic proximity could exert on the firms competitiveness. However influential, Porters ideas were not the precursor to discussing the competitive outcomes originating from the geographic concentration of firms (Martin and Sunley, 2003). The roots of cluster theory go back to the industrial districts identified by Marshall (1890), who offered the first detailed description about the economic and social systems created as a result of the spacial concentrations of industrial activities. The Marshallian industrial districts were arrangements of small firms interconnected by commercial operations (buyers and sellers) and other firms engaged in the same or similar activities, that shared productive factors, such as the labour market, infrastructure and tacit knowledge (Becattini, 2004, p. 68). According to Marshals descriptions, a group of firms operating in one specific sector within a well-defined, concentrated and relatively small geographic area would experience higher levels of productivity and innovation, indeed the emergence of a fertile e nvironment for technical and organisational developments. Thus the local characteristics would enable the emergence of an industrial atmosphere that would increase the firms potential to acquire (especially tacit) knowledge, and create positive external economies accessible only to the firms located within the district (Asheim, 2003, p. 416). That perspective tried to evidence that firms geographically concentrated could accesses restricted positive exogenous benefits (exogenous to firms, but endogenous to the district), which would be an alternative to the scale economies achieved by a single (integrated) firm. Additionally, following some of the seminal ideas proposed by Marshall, it is possible to observe a significant number of economic geographers that also explored regional development using the spatial economic agglomeration to support their ideas. Some examples of concepts emerging from that theoretical trend are regional innovation milieux (Crevoisier, 2004), neo-Marshallian nodes (Amin and Thrift, 1992) and learning regions (Asheim, 1995). More examples can be found in Markusen (1996, p. 297), in which another three different types of industrial districts are described according to the firms configurations, internal versus external orientations and governance structures: a hub-and-spoke industrial district, which is concentrated around one or more dominant firms; a satellite platform, formed by a group of unconnected branches embedded in external links; and the state-anchored district, concentrated on one or more public-sector institutions. Despite the logical and robust assumption s found in many of those concepts, their influence and dissemination were not as successful as the more general cluster framework proposed by Porter. Martin and Sunley (2003) attributes the successful dissemination of the Porter concepts to the very general descriptions and delimitations that encompass a wide range of actors and many different structures. Following much of the concepts proposed by Porter, the description of advantages conferred on clustered firms associated with a general and structured analytical framework stimulated the development and dissemination of academic studies and subsidized the creation of supply-side competitiveness policies directed at structuring and supporting the development of clusters (Pitelis, 2010). That fact resulted in what Martin and Sunley (2003) describe as a policy panacea in the use of clusters as a standard (sometimes the unique) target for promoting competitiveness, innovation and economic growth. Moreover, in the last 20 years an increasing number of empirical studies in different countries and sectors have been observed, which aim to identify and discuss the competitive outcomes originating from the concentration of firms and other actors in the same location, for example: Brazil à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" shoe manufacturing in the Sinos Valley (Schmitz, 2000); Spain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the text ile and clothing industries in Catalonia (Porter, 1998); Taiwan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" electronic products at the Hsinchu Science Park (Chen, 2008); and the United States à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" computer and information systems at the Silicon Valley (Saxenian, 1994). The large significant number of academic studies has resulted in a large number of definitions aiming to describe and establish an accepted cluster template (e.g., Enright, 1996; Swann and Prevezer, 1996, Rosenfeld, 1997; Porter, 1998) to support policy makers and academics has led to intense debates and controversial perspectives. Even though the concept of clusters has been increasingly widely disseminated and used by geographers, economists and policy makers, it has suffered from some conceptual confusion. Porter defines a cluster as a geographic concentration of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers firms in related industries, and associated institutions (for example, universities, standards agencies and trade associations) in particular fields that compete but also co-operate (1998, p. 197). However, Martin and Sunley (2003, p. 12) present consistent arguments that indicate the vagueness and superficiality of the concept proposed by Porter. Accordin g to their arguments, those characteristics make the concept of cluster means different things to different researchers and policy makers, creating problems for its proper use in the guidance of academics and governments. Those highly controversial aspects of the cluster theory have stimulated the continuous emergence of new concepts and definitions for clusters. Proposing a definition aiming to fill some of the gaps and failures found in extant cluster theory, Pitelis (2010, p. 5) defines clusters as geographical agglomerations of firms in particular, related, and/or complementary, activities, with a geographical dimension, that exhibit horizontal and/or vertical intra- and/or inter-sectoral linkages, which operate in the context of a facilitatory socio-institutional setting, and which co-operate and compete (co-opete) in inter-national markets. That definition tries offer to a more delimited approach that incorporates four major elements: geographical agglomeration, linkages, social-capital  [1]  and co-opetition (competition and cooperation). The use of those four elements in a single definition offers the possibility to cover the cluster characteristics using delimited criteria to identify and distinguish developed clusters from less complex geographical agglomerations of firms and institutions. Although it is possible to observe some level of ambiguity encompassing the clusters theory, the existence of links interconnecting local actors complemented by geographical dimensions constitute some of the main common points used to guide academics and policy makers with interesting by the competitive outcomes originating from clusters. Those characteristics have frequently been used as the starting point to understand the economic dynamics of clustered firms, putting emphasis on the levels of innovation and productivity emerging from the concentration of different actors in the same area. Suggesting conditional characteristics to the presence of competitive advantages obtained by firms inside clusters, Ketels (2004) considers that the positive economic effects originated from the geographical concentration will only take place if four critical characteristics are shared among firms and institutions: Proximity: they must be geographically close to allow the emergence of knowledge spillovers and to share the same common resources; Linkages: the necessity of similarities in their activities leading to the establishment of connections and synergies; Interactions: the social interactions developed among firms, clients, suppliers, research institutes, and so on, is what forms the social capital that becomes possible firms to achieve differentiated competitive performances; Critical mass: it is important to have a significant number of firms and institutions in order to create meaningful impacts on performance of the local actors. Those characteristics described by Ketels may be used to guide the identification and distinction between developed clusters (Pitelis, 2010) from incipient clusters (Schmitz, 1999) in order to dismiss some incorrect interpretations associated with the clusters dynamics. Considering that the presence of geographic concentration of firms in the same industry is strikingly common around the world (Porter, 1990, p.120), it is necessary the use of specific benchmarks to distinguish and classify different groups of firms geographically concentrated according to their specific characteristics (Gordon and McCann, 2000; Isbasoiu, 2006). Describing how the existence of local capabilities  [2]  create differentiated conditions for companies within real clusters, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) argue that clusters are essentially formed from path dependencies (Martin and Sunley, 2006), transaction costs economies (McCann and Sheppard, 2003) and small cognitive distances originating from spatial proximity (Maskell, 2001). Thus, that set of factors are expected to create a specific regional dynamics with influence on the firms economic performance. Taking into consideration the different stages of a cluster life cycle, and the misunderstandings related to the claims associated with the clusters and competitiveness, Schmitz points out that A group of small producers making the same or similar things in close vicinity to each other constitutes a cluster, but such concentration in itself brings few benefits (1999, p. 4), emphasizing that the mere presence of firms in a delimited area does not represent a source of value creat ion able to improve in a significant way the local economic performance. Following the arguments above, the differences between regional clusters and simple agglomerations (groups of firms) lie mainly on the interconnected nature and spatial proximity. Thus, clusters are characterized by intense collaborative networks and concentrations of collaboration and competition (co-opetitition) (Pitelis, 2010), conditions which offer significant opportunities and stimulate the emergence of regional competitive advantages (Steinle and Schiele, 2002). Complementarily, another critical characteristic observed within clusters is the diversity of actors. According to Porter (1990, 1998, 2000), an industrial cluster includes suppliers, consumers, related industries, governments, and supporting institutions such as universities. This way, the existence of a regional network formed by a significant group of interconnected local actors is one of the critical factors to understand the differentiated competitive performance of firms within clusters (Steinle and Schiele, 2002 ). Illustrating that argument, Saxenian (1994) observed that Hewlett Packard and other firms at the Silicon Valley had their performance improved by the development long-term partnerships with suppliers located geographically close. Moreover, based on that observation, Saxenian concluded that, especially in high-tech industries, the physical proximity represents a facilitator to the establishment of efficient collaborative arrangements required to create and manage complex products and services. 1.2 Evolutionary Stages of Industrial Clusters Despite the vast cluster literature, the number of academic works discussing the evolutionary patterns of clusters overtime is not so extensive. Some examples can be found in Pouder and John (1996), Klepper (2001, 2007), Wolter (2003) and Andersson et al., (2004), and despite the divergent perspectives, it is accepted that clusters follow a kind of life cycle comprised by different phases that significantly differ in their characteristics and influence on firms performance. Regarding the cluster dynamics, Pouder and John (1996) argue that comparative analysis between clustered and non-clustered firms during the industry life cycle reveal that firms within clusters outperform those geographically dispersed at the initial stages of development, and have a worse performance at its end. That fact suggests that the cluster life cycle is not just a local representation of the industry trajectory, but is a result from local peculiarities. The comparative analysis developed by Saxenian (1994 ) between the computer industry in Boston and Silicon Valley illustrates how different clusters belonging to the same industry are very likely to follow different trajectories (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). Proposing a different perspective, Klepper (2001, 2007) suggests a model to demonstrate how the clusters life cycle is determined by some the industry patterns. Klepper analyzed the automobile, tire and television industries and observed that at the beginning of the industry life cycle it was not possible to observe clear geographic concentrations of firms, with most of the firms spatially dispersed. He observed that in those industries clusters started to emerge and develop according to the industry growth rates. Klepper argues that the local characteristics originating from the spacial proximity (e.g., intensive spin-off process) give the stimulus for the geographic agglomeration of the whole industry, not only for specific groups. At the time the industry growth rate reduces, the attractiveness to remain agglomerated will also decrease and the industry will become dispersed again. That model proposed by Klepper represents a Technology-Product- Industry (TIP) life cycle. The logic behind this model is on the impact that the evolution of products and innovations has on the size, number, and location of firms. Wolter (2003) criticizes the model proposed by Klepper arguing that the growth rate cannot explain the agglomeration process in all industries on equal basis. Moreover, Wolter disagrees with the determinist perspective proposed by the TIP model, once it neglects that mature industries can be reinvented by radical or incremental innovations of new products and process. Analyzing the economic performance of firms within clusters Pouder and John (1996) attribute to the existence of mental models and biased cognitive focus the characteristics responsible for shaping the movement through the clusters life cycle. Following that perspective, at initial stages the cluster dynamics creates an innovative environment that exerts positive impacts on the firms performance. However, overtime that initial condition is eroded by strong institutional pressures that create a homogeneous macroculture that acts inhibiting the innovative capacity of the firms within the cluster. As in the model presented by Klepper (2001, 2007), that trajectory proposed by Pouder and John may also be criticized by the determinism that ignores the possibility of adaptations or reconfigurations in order to avoid lock-ins and other negative effects. Considering the arguments proposed by Menzel and Fornahl (2010, p. 8) that very few clusters follow a rigid life cycle from emergence to growth and decline, it is expected that clusters evolve overtime according to the local dynamics created by economic and social interactions among firms and institutions. That dynamics may be influenced, but not strictly determined by industry patterns (Wolter, 2003). Following a generic and stylized trajectory, within successful clusters the local network formed by inter-firm connections will tend to be intensified overtime, with an increasing number of formal and informal interactions between the long-established companies and new the ones attracted to the cluster. Even though it is more conceivable to assume that the decisions adopted by firms and institutions are shaped by specific circumstances, a generic trajectory can be described following the stages illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1: The cluster life cycle C:UsersLucasAppDataLocalMicrosoftWindowsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordSem tÃÆ' ­tulo.jpg Source: Andersson et al. (2004, p. 43) Agglomeration: It is possible to observe the existence of a number of companies and other actors (e.g. banks, government agencies, universities, accountants, and lawyers offices) in a specific region working around the same or interrelated activities. Emerging cluster: Forming the embryo to the cluster some actors start to cooperation around some core activities, and start to realize the existence of common linkages. Developing cluster: The linkages are intensified by the emergence and attraction of new actors to the region, resulting in the creation of more interaction. In this context the development of inter-firm-cooperation becomes more evident through the development of joint efforts. The Mature cluster: This stage is configured by the presence of a certain critical mass of factors that consistently influence the competitive performance of the firms inside the cluster. The internal dynamics is characterized by the presence of an institutional environment, strong linkages, complementarities and the emergence of new firms through startups, joint ventures and spin-offs. Transformation: Indeed the process of continuous environmental change in markets, technologies, regulations and other process, to be successful a cluster have to innovate and adapt to these new conditions, other way stagnation and decay may affect the cluster dynamics. That process of change/adaptation may happen through the emergence of one or several interconnected clusters with focus in other activities, or by new configuration in terms of networks of firms and institutions. The presence of economic benefits for clustered firms described by authors like Schmitz and Nadvi (1999), Ketels (2004), Isbasoiu (2006) and Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) are closely related to the stage of development that a cluster is experiencing. For example, an emerging cluster is not actually a cluster, since the small number of firms is not expected to present a high level of linkages and do not form a critical mass. Moreover, the absence of strong interdependencies such as labour mobility, spin-off, socioeconomic networks and intense exchange of good and services prevent the emergence of local capabilities. Thus, same considering that this stage constitutes the embryo that determines the future cluster orientation, at this point the firms are not expected to be strongly influenced by a complex local dynamics. Observing that fact, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) present a skeptical position regarding the effectiveness of any competitiveness policy intended to stimulate the development of clusters at initial stages (agglomeration and emerging), since the existence of horizontal and vertical links among firms concentrated in the same region constitutes a very common fact around the world. Thus, it is almost impossible to distinguish agglomerations with real potential to become a cluster from less complex structures. Consequently, emerging clusters are almost always only described ex-post. After the initial stages of the clusters life cycle it is expected the development and intensification of interdependencies between firms within cluster boundaries (Press, 2006). Indeed the development of those interdependencies, firms start to resemble more with each other, being observe the emergence of convergent designs in terms of technological models (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010), specialized labour market (Cooke et al., 2007), production systems (Pitelis, 2010) and inter-firm relationships (Blien and Maier, 2008). Moreover, developing clusters also attract a high number of start-ups that act stimulating the intensification of intra-cluster relationships. This way, that process of convergence and expansion of the number of firms within the cluster boundaries culminates in the development of self-reinforcing external economies that decrease the heterogeneity among firms at the same time that creates benefits like transactions cost economies and the privileged access to local knowle dge. As clusters reach the stage of maturity, the standards and configurations originating from past decisions become consolidate and it is observed a reduction in the growth rate of firms attracted to the cluster (Klepper, 2007). At this point the cluster trajectory may take two different directions. Keep unchanged, and suffer with a homogenization process that creates bias economic activities and therefore prevent firms to adapt to external shocks (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). That situation traps firms in previous successful development path and lead to the geographic dispersion of the local actors and to the deterioration of the interdependencies and capabilities. The other possible trajectory is observed in clusters that reach the stage of maturity and successfully sustain the local dynamics by a continuous process of reconfiguration and adaptation to the external shocks (Wolter, 2003). 1.2 Clusters and Economic Performance The extant theory offers a wide range of explanations to justify the economic and competitive benefits experienced by firms located within clusters. Krugman (1991) stress the existence of increasing returns originating from the concentration of firms in the same area, arguing that the geographic proximity puts together the main parts related to firms activities (e.g., labours, firms, suppliers and costumers) resulting in transaction costs economies. Following other perspective, Schmitz and Nadvi (1999) argue that unintentional external economies are not sufficient to explain the competitiveness of firms located within clusters, attributing to the existence of deliberate joint actions (e.g., sharing equipments, associations, strategic alliances and producers improving components) a critical source of the competitive advantages. Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) explain the levels of competitiveness and productivity associated with clustered firms considering the existence of specialized hu man resources, infrastructure and befits associated with unit costs economies complemented by the presence of an institutional atmosphere. Stressing a different point of view, Bahlmann and Huysman (2008) adopts the knowledge-based view of clusters to emphasize the relevance of knowledge spillovers among the firms to explain the advantages originated from the agglomeration process. Dupuy and Torre (2006) explains the existence of cluster in terms of the advantages originating from trust relationships that increase confidence and reduce risk and uncertainty about the intra-cluster operations taking place among the firms. Moreover, Zyglidopoulos et al. (2003), describe the positive effects that the reputation of a cluster may exert on the internalization process of small and micro enterprises through the alleviation of strategic constraints associated with factors like qualified work force, financing and reduction of the firms legitimation expenses. Despite that wide range of arguments, the most traditional perspective found in the cluster literature has explained the competitive advantages of clusters in terms of productivity and innovation (Pitelis, 1998; Porter, 1998), suggesting that the special characteristics originated from the economic and geographic proximity have significant impact on those two factors. Supplementary, Enright (1998) considers that the characteristics present inside the clusters local environment result in pressures, incentives and capabilities that increase the firms competitiveness comparatively to dispersed competitors, explaining the clustering process in terms of geographically restricted characteristics. Moreover, Solvell et al. (2003) suggests that the competitive advantages emerging from regional clusters may be classified as static and dynamics. According to this perspective, while the agglomeration process triggered and sustained intensively or exclusively by factors like natural resources, low cost labors and government subsidies offers a vulnerable (easy to be copied, substituted or simple eroded by environmental changes) competitive position, clusters based on dynamics characteristics like multi-sectorial externalities, advantages of scale and scope and specific knowledge spillovers are more dynamics and competitive. Extending the arguments presented by Solvell and his colleagues, Andersson et al. (2004) considers that the sustainability of static and dynamic competitive advantages is not strictly determined, arguing that static factors are the main responsible for the emergence of clusters, while the dynamics factors are only developed along the different stages of the cluste r life cycle. Complementing the understanding about the influence of the cluster dynamics on the firms economic performance some authors like Porter (2001); Garnsey and Heffernan (2007); Karlsson (2008) and Mason (2008) describe the existence of a self-reinforcing process originating from the agglomeration externalities that contribute to create a regional virtuous-circle of increasing productivity, competitiveness and value creation. Following that argument, the economic and geographic proximity will stimulate firms to innovate more indeed benefits originating from local capabilities, which will stimulate even more the agglomeration process through the intensification of inter-firm relationships and the attraction of other firms from outside the cluster, which in turn will strength the local capabilities (Blandy, 2003, p. 101). Thus, the dynamics of clusters is expected to be self-reinforced by agglomeration benefits with significant influence on the firms performance. Putting together the arguments associated with the economic impacts experienced by clustered firms indeed the existence of local factors, it is possible to identify and describe the following positive location-specific externalities: Cost savings indeed the geographic proximity with specialized suppliers, labours and distributors; Knowledge-spillovers (intentional and unintentional), since firms inside clusters can benefit from the knowledge dissemination process that may take place especially through inter-firm cooperation, specific linkages and labour mobility; Deliberate joint actions facilitated by the engagement in alliances and partnerships to achieve strategic objectives; Trust relationships, that through the geographic and economic proximity minimize the uncertainty associated with commercial operations, resulting in transactions costs economies; Pressures for higher performance, stimulated by the proximity with competitors; Specific Infrastructure and public goods that are oriented to attend the cluster demands, like roads, ports, laboratories and telecommunication networks; Complementarities, associated with firms in different activities but sharing common factors like raw material, clients and technologies that may enhance the cluster efficiency as whole. Discussing the role of regional clusters in shaping competitive patterns, Tallman et al. (2004) proposes a distinction between the types of competitive advantages emerging from clustered firms: based on traded interdependencies and based on untraded interdependencies. The concept of traded interdependencies is related to the existence of inter-firm transactions inside the cluster, and is observed in formal exchange operations that may take place in form of alliances, commercial operations and acquisitions. On the other hand, untraded interdependencies are related to less tangible effects, and are based on shared knowledge for which no market mechanism exists; with no formal exchange of value for value (Tallman et al. 2004, p. 261). To illustrate the mechanisms by which the untraded interdependencies take place, it is possible to mention unintentional external economies associated with tacit knowledge shared through mechanisms like labor mobility. Those different types of interdependencies, especially untraded, present at the cluster level, represent a source of competitive advantage that is likely to be causal ambiguous (for firms inside and outside the cluster) and high complex in terms of their origins, what consequently constitutes attributes difficult to be replicated by competitors. However, the presence of untraded effects, especially unintentional knowledge spillovers, is viewed Enright (1998) as a constraining factor for firms within clusters, since the establishment of an efficient information flow may limit the firms capacity to obtain monopoly profits from the development of innovations. Complementing the negative effects originating from the clusters dynamics, some authors also describe agglomeration diseconomies that have a negative impact firms located within clusters. For example, congestion effects (Arthur, 1990), institutional sclerosis (Pouder and John, 1996; Pitelis, 2010), rigidities associated with labour mobility and natural resources (Krugman, 1989) and pollution (Fan and Scott, 2003). This way, the dynamics and performance of a cluster is determined by the interplay between positive and negative externalities observed during the different stages of development that a cluster is expected to pass overtime (Wolter, 2003) Limitations in the Cluster Theory Notwithstanding the advances in the cluster theory some questions still remain insufficiently explored. One of the main limitations observed in the current state of the cluster literature is the lack of comparative perspectives to explain the advantages and disadvantages of clusters relatively to other alternative models of organization of economic activities. In his very novel approach, Pitelis (2010) suggests that any perspective trying to explain clusters in terms of absolute advantages is at the very best incomplete. In this context, Pitelis proposes the comparison of clusters vis-ÃÆ'  -vis to markets and hierarchies in order to understand the reasons and conditions that lead firms to engage in intra-clusters relationships, market operations (outside the cluster) or integrate within the firms hierarchy. In fact it is not necessary a great effort to conclude that most of the cluster theory has been developed following a mono-institutional approach (e.g. Porter, 1990, 1998; Saxe nian, 1994; Rosenfeld, 1998; Swann and Sennett, 1998; Schmitz and Nadvi, 1999), while some few exceptions concentrated on transactions costs (e.g. Fujita and Thisse, 1996; Iammarino and McCann, 2006; Takeda et al., 2008) and knowledge creation efficiency (e.g. Hendry et al., 2000; Tracey and Clark, 2003; Reinau, 2007; Kongmanila and Takahashi, 2009) have been drawn on a comparative approaches between clusters and open-market operations. Assuming the arguments proposed by many scholars that clusters are engines of innovation (Davis, 2006, p. 32), the lack of comparative perspectives do not answer the question why clusters are more efficient than markets or the hierarchy to improve the firms innovative capacity (Pitelis, 2010). Thus, despite the wide number of ramifications observed in the cluster theory such as innovative efficiency, productivity, social capital and social interactions, its explicative power remains almost always restricted Inter Firm Relationships in the Silicon Fen Inter Firm Relationships in the Silicon Fen The attention that clusters have received from policy makers and academics has substantially increased in the last 20 years. Since Porters seminal work on The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990) presented clusters as one of the determinants of the international competitiveness of nations and regions, many scholars have adopted and further developed his approach. Porter bases his arguments on what he describes as the globalization paradox, pointing out that despite the logical implications that the globalisation process might have in dismissing the relevance of regional factors, the most competitive firms in world are located in groups geographically concentrated in specific locations. That perspective contributed to attracting attention to the existence of characteristics tied to a local context that could not be accessed by firms positioned elsewhere, and more, to the positive effects that the concentration and the geographic proximity could exert on the firms competitiveness. However influential, Porters ideas were not the precursor to discussing the competitive outcomes originating from the geographic concentration of firms (Martin and Sunley, 2003). The roots of cluster theory go back to the industrial districts identified by Marshall (1890), who offered the first detailed description about the economic and social systems created as a result of the spacial concentrations of industrial activities. The Marshallian industrial districts were arrangements of small firms interconnected by commercial operations (buyers and sellers) and other firms engaged in the same or similar activities, that shared productive factors, such as the labour market, infrastructure and tacit knowledge (Becattini, 2004, p. 68). According to Marshals descriptions, a group of firms operating in one specific sector within a well-defined, concentrated and relatively small geographic area would experience higher levels of productivity and innovation, indeed the emergence of a fertile e nvironment for technical and organisational developments. Thus the local characteristics would enable the emergence of an industrial atmosphere that would increase the firms potential to acquire (especially tacit) knowledge, and create positive external economies accessible only to the firms located within the district (Asheim, 2003, p. 416). That perspective tried to evidence that firms geographically concentrated could accesses restricted positive exogenous benefits (exogenous to firms, but endogenous to the district), which would be an alternative to the scale economies achieved by a single (integrated) firm. Additionally, following some of the seminal ideas proposed by Marshall, it is possible to observe a significant number of economic geographers that also explored regional development using the spatial economic agglomeration to support their ideas. Some examples of concepts emerging from that theoretical trend are regional innovation milieux (Crevoisier, 2004), neo-Marshallian nodes (Amin and Thrift, 1992) and learning regions (Asheim, 1995). More examples can be found in Markusen (1996, p. 297), in which another three different types of industrial districts are described according to the firms configurations, internal versus external orientations and governance structures: a hub-and-spoke industrial district, which is concentrated around one or more dominant firms; a satellite platform, formed by a group of unconnected branches embedded in external links; and the state-anchored district, concentrated on one or more public-sector institutions. Despite the logical and robust assumption s found in many of those concepts, their influence and dissemination were not as successful as the more general cluster framework proposed by Porter. Martin and Sunley (2003) attributes the successful dissemination of the Porter concepts to the very general descriptions and delimitations that encompass a wide range of actors and many different structures. Following much of the concepts proposed by Porter, the description of advantages conferred on clustered firms associated with a general and structured analytical framework stimulated the development and dissemination of academic studies and subsidized the creation of supply-side competitiveness policies directed at structuring and supporting the development of clusters (Pitelis, 2010). That fact resulted in what Martin and Sunley (2003) describe as a policy panacea in the use of clusters as a standard (sometimes the unique) target for promoting competitiveness, innovation and economic growth. Moreover, in the last 20 years an increasing number of empirical studies in different countries and sectors have been observed, which aim to identify and discuss the competitive outcomes originating from the concentration of firms and other actors in the same location, for example: Brazil à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" shoe manufacturing in the Sinos Valley (Schmitz, 2000); Spain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the text ile and clothing industries in Catalonia (Porter, 1998); Taiwan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" electronic products at the Hsinchu Science Park (Chen, 2008); and the United States à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" computer and information systems at the Silicon Valley (Saxenian, 1994). The large significant number of academic studies has resulted in a large number of definitions aiming to describe and establish an accepted cluster template (e.g., Enright, 1996; Swann and Prevezer, 1996, Rosenfeld, 1997; Porter, 1998) to support policy makers and academics has led to intense debates and controversial perspectives. Even though the concept of clusters has been increasingly widely disseminated and used by geographers, economists and policy makers, it has suffered from some conceptual confusion. Porter defines a cluster as a geographic concentration of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers firms in related industries, and associated institutions (for example, universities, standards agencies and trade associations) in particular fields that compete but also co-operate (1998, p. 197). However, Martin and Sunley (2003, p. 12) present consistent arguments that indicate the vagueness and superficiality of the concept proposed by Porter. Accordin g to their arguments, those characteristics make the concept of cluster means different things to different researchers and policy makers, creating problems for its proper use in the guidance of academics and governments. Those highly controversial aspects of the cluster theory have stimulated the continuous emergence of new concepts and definitions for clusters. Proposing a definition aiming to fill some of the gaps and failures found in extant cluster theory, Pitelis (2010, p. 5) defines clusters as geographical agglomerations of firms in particular, related, and/or complementary, activities, with a geographical dimension, that exhibit horizontal and/or vertical intra- and/or inter-sectoral linkages, which operate in the context of a facilitatory socio-institutional setting, and which co-operate and compete (co-opete) in inter-national markets. That definition tries offer to a more delimited approach that incorporates four major elements: geographical agglomeration, linkages, social-capital  [1]  and co-opetition (competition and cooperation). The use of those four elements in a single definition offers the possibility to cover the cluster characteristics using delimited criteria to identify and distinguish developed clusters from less complex geographical agglomerations of firms and institutions. Although it is possible to observe some level of ambiguity encompassing the clusters theory, the existence of links interconnecting local actors complemented by geographical dimensions constitute some of the main common points used to guide academics and policy makers with interesting by the competitive outcomes originating from clusters. Those characteristics have frequently been used as the starting point to understand the economic dynamics of clustered firms, putting emphasis on the levels of innovation and productivity emerging from the concentration of different actors in the same area. Suggesting conditional characteristics to the presence of competitive advantages obtained by firms inside clusters, Ketels (2004) considers that the positive economic effects originated from the geographical concentration will only take place if four critical characteristics are shared among firms and institutions: Proximity: they must be geographically close to allow the emergence of knowledge spillovers and to share the same common resources; Linkages: the necessity of similarities in their activities leading to the establishment of connections and synergies; Interactions: the social interactions developed among firms, clients, suppliers, research institutes, and so on, is what forms the social capital that becomes possible firms to achieve differentiated competitive performances; Critical mass: it is important to have a significant number of firms and institutions in order to create meaningful impacts on performance of the local actors. Those characteristics described by Ketels may be used to guide the identification and distinction between developed clusters (Pitelis, 2010) from incipient clusters (Schmitz, 1999) in order to dismiss some incorrect interpretations associated with the clusters dynamics. Considering that the presence of geographic concentration of firms in the same industry is strikingly common around the world (Porter, 1990, p.120), it is necessary the use of specific benchmarks to distinguish and classify different groups of firms geographically concentrated according to their specific characteristics (Gordon and McCann, 2000; Isbasoiu, 2006). Describing how the existence of local capabilities  [2]  create differentiated conditions for companies within real clusters, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) argue that clusters are essentially formed from path dependencies (Martin and Sunley, 2006), transaction costs economies (McCann and Sheppard, 2003) and small cognitive distances originating from spatial proximity (Maskell, 2001). Thus, that set of factors are expected to create a specific regional dynamics with influence on the firms economic performance. Taking into consideration the different stages of a cluster life cycle, and the misunderstandings related to the claims associated with the clusters and competitiveness, Schmitz points out that A group of small producers making the same or similar things in close vicinity to each other constitutes a cluster, but such concentration in itself brings few benefits (1999, p. 4), emphasizing that the mere presence of firms in a delimited area does not represent a source of value creat ion able to improve in a significant way the local economic performance. Following the arguments above, the differences between regional clusters and simple agglomerations (groups of firms) lie mainly on the interconnected nature and spatial proximity. Thus, clusters are characterized by intense collaborative networks and concentrations of collaboration and competition (co-opetitition) (Pitelis, 2010), conditions which offer significant opportunities and stimulate the emergence of regional competitive advantages (Steinle and Schiele, 2002). Complementarily, another critical characteristic observed within clusters is the diversity of actors. According to Porter (1990, 1998, 2000), an industrial cluster includes suppliers, consumers, related industries, governments, and supporting institutions such as universities. This way, the existence of a regional network formed by a significant group of interconnected local actors is one of the critical factors to understand the differentiated competitive performance of firms within clusters (Steinle and Schiele, 2002 ). Illustrating that argument, Saxenian (1994) observed that Hewlett Packard and other firms at the Silicon Valley had their performance improved by the development long-term partnerships with suppliers located geographically close. Moreover, based on that observation, Saxenian concluded that, especially in high-tech industries, the physical proximity represents a facilitator to the establishment of efficient collaborative arrangements required to create and manage complex products and services. 1.2 Evolutionary Stages of Industrial Clusters Despite the vast cluster literature, the number of academic works discussing the evolutionary patterns of clusters overtime is not so extensive. Some examples can be found in Pouder and John (1996), Klepper (2001, 2007), Wolter (2003) and Andersson et al., (2004), and despite the divergent perspectives, it is accepted that clusters follow a kind of life cycle comprised by different phases that significantly differ in their characteristics and influence on firms performance. Regarding the cluster dynamics, Pouder and John (1996) argue that comparative analysis between clustered and non-clustered firms during the industry life cycle reveal that firms within clusters outperform those geographically dispersed at the initial stages of development, and have a worse performance at its end. That fact suggests that the cluster life cycle is not just a local representation of the industry trajectory, but is a result from local peculiarities. The comparative analysis developed by Saxenian (1994 ) between the computer industry in Boston and Silicon Valley illustrates how different clusters belonging to the same industry are very likely to follow different trajectories (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). Proposing a different perspective, Klepper (2001, 2007) suggests a model to demonstrate how the clusters life cycle is determined by some the industry patterns. Klepper analyzed the automobile, tire and television industries and observed that at the beginning of the industry life cycle it was not possible to observe clear geographic concentrations of firms, with most of the firms spatially dispersed. He observed that in those industries clusters started to emerge and develop according to the industry growth rates. Klepper argues that the local characteristics originating from the spacial proximity (e.g., intensive spin-off process) give the stimulus for the geographic agglomeration of the whole industry, not only for specific groups. At the time the industry growth rate reduces, the attractiveness to remain agglomerated will also decrease and the industry will become dispersed again. That model proposed by Klepper represents a Technology-Product- Industry (TIP) life cycle. The logic behind this model is on the impact that the evolution of products and innovations has on the size, number, and location of firms. Wolter (2003) criticizes the model proposed by Klepper arguing that the growth rate cannot explain the agglomeration process in all industries on equal basis. Moreover, Wolter disagrees with the determinist perspective proposed by the TIP model, once it neglects that mature industries can be reinvented by radical or incremental innovations of new products and process. Analyzing the economic performance of firms within clusters Pouder and John (1996) attribute to the existence of mental models and biased cognitive focus the characteristics responsible for shaping the movement through the clusters life cycle. Following that perspective, at initial stages the cluster dynamics creates an innovative environment that exerts positive impacts on the firms performance. However, overtime that initial condition is eroded by strong institutional pressures that create a homogeneous macroculture that acts inhibiting the innovative capacity of the firms within the cluster. As in the model presented by Klepper (2001, 2007), that trajectory proposed by Pouder and John may also be criticized by the determinism that ignores the possibility of adaptations or reconfigurations in order to avoid lock-ins and other negative effects. Considering the arguments proposed by Menzel and Fornahl (2010, p. 8) that very few clusters follow a rigid life cycle from emergence to growth and decline, it is expected that clusters evolve overtime according to the local dynamics created by economic and social interactions among firms and institutions. That dynamics may be influenced, but not strictly determined by industry patterns (Wolter, 2003). Following a generic and stylized trajectory, within successful clusters the local network formed by inter-firm connections will tend to be intensified overtime, with an increasing number of formal and informal interactions between the long-established companies and new the ones attracted to the cluster. Even though it is more conceivable to assume that the decisions adopted by firms and institutions are shaped by specific circumstances, a generic trajectory can be described following the stages illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1: The cluster life cycle C:UsersLucasAppDataLocalMicrosoftWindowsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordSem tÃÆ' ­tulo.jpg Source: Andersson et al. (2004, p. 43) Agglomeration: It is possible to observe the existence of a number of companies and other actors (e.g. banks, government agencies, universities, accountants, and lawyers offices) in a specific region working around the same or interrelated activities. Emerging cluster: Forming the embryo to the cluster some actors start to cooperation around some core activities, and start to realize the existence of common linkages. Developing cluster: The linkages are intensified by the emergence and attraction of new actors to the region, resulting in the creation of more interaction. In this context the development of inter-firm-cooperation becomes more evident through the development of joint efforts. The Mature cluster: This stage is configured by the presence of a certain critical mass of factors that consistently influence the competitive performance of the firms inside the cluster. The internal dynamics is characterized by the presence of an institutional environment, strong linkages, complementarities and the emergence of new firms through startups, joint ventures and spin-offs. Transformation: Indeed the process of continuous environmental change in markets, technologies, regulations and other process, to be successful a cluster have to innovate and adapt to these new conditions, other way stagnation and decay may affect the cluster dynamics. That process of change/adaptation may happen through the emergence of one or several interconnected clusters with focus in other activities, or by new configuration in terms of networks of firms and institutions. The presence of economic benefits for clustered firms described by authors like Schmitz and Nadvi (1999), Ketels (2004), Isbasoiu (2006) and Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) are closely related to the stage of development that a cluster is experiencing. For example, an emerging cluster is not actually a cluster, since the small number of firms is not expected to present a high level of linkages and do not form a critical mass. Moreover, the absence of strong interdependencies such as labour mobility, spin-off, socioeconomic networks and intense exchange of good and services prevent the emergence of local capabilities. Thus, same considering that this stage constitutes the embryo that determines the future cluster orientation, at this point the firms are not expected to be strongly influenced by a complex local dynamics. Observing that fact, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) present a skeptical position regarding the effectiveness of any competitiveness policy intended to stimulate the development of clusters at initial stages (agglomeration and emerging), since the existence of horizontal and vertical links among firms concentrated in the same region constitutes a very common fact around the world. Thus, it is almost impossible to distinguish agglomerations with real potential to become a cluster from less complex structures. Consequently, emerging clusters are almost always only described ex-post. After the initial stages of the clusters life cycle it is expected the development and intensification of interdependencies between firms within cluster boundaries (Press, 2006). Indeed the development of those interdependencies, firms start to resemble more with each other, being observe the emergence of convergent designs in terms of technological models (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010), specialized labour market (Cooke et al., 2007), production systems (Pitelis, 2010) and inter-firm relationships (Blien and Maier, 2008). Moreover, developing clusters also attract a high number of start-ups that act stimulating the intensification of intra-cluster relationships. This way, that process of convergence and expansion of the number of firms within the cluster boundaries culminates in the development of self-reinforcing external economies that decrease the heterogeneity among firms at the same time that creates benefits like transactions cost economies and the privileged access to local knowle dge. As clusters reach the stage of maturity, the standards and configurations originating from past decisions become consolidate and it is observed a reduction in the growth rate of firms attracted to the cluster (Klepper, 2007). At this point the cluster trajectory may take two different directions. Keep unchanged, and suffer with a homogenization process that creates bias economic activities and therefore prevent firms to adapt to external shocks (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). That situation traps firms in previous successful development path and lead to the geographic dispersion of the local actors and to the deterioration of the interdependencies and capabilities. The other possible trajectory is observed in clusters that reach the stage of maturity and successfully sustain the local dynamics by a continuous process of reconfiguration and adaptation to the external shocks (Wolter, 2003). 1.2 Clusters and Economic Performance The extant theory offers a wide range of explanations to justify the economic and competitive benefits experienced by firms located within clusters. Krugman (1991) stress the existence of increasing returns originating from the concentration of firms in the same area, arguing that the geographic proximity puts together the main parts related to firms activities (e.g., labours, firms, suppliers and costumers) resulting in transaction costs economies. Following other perspective, Schmitz and Nadvi (1999) argue that unintentional external economies are not sufficient to explain the competitiveness of firms located within clusters, attributing to the existence of deliberate joint actions (e.g., sharing equipments, associations, strategic alliances and producers improving components) a critical source of the competitive advantages. Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) explain the levels of competitiveness and productivity associated with clustered firms considering the existence of specialized hu man resources, infrastructure and befits associated with unit costs economies complemented by the presence of an institutional atmosphere. Stressing a different point of view, Bahlmann and Huysman (2008) adopts the knowledge-based view of clusters to emphasize the relevance of knowledge spillovers among the firms to explain the advantages originated from the agglomeration process. Dupuy and Torre (2006) explains the existence of cluster in terms of the advantages originating from trust relationships that increase confidence and reduce risk and uncertainty about the intra-cluster operations taking place among the firms. Moreover, Zyglidopoulos et al. (2003), describe the positive effects that the reputation of a cluster may exert on the internalization process of small and micro enterprises through the alleviation of strategic constraints associated with factors like qualified work force, financing and reduction of the firms legitimation expenses. Despite that wide range of arguments, the most traditional perspective found in the cluster literature has explained the competitive advantages of clusters in terms of productivity and innovation (Pitelis, 1998; Porter, 1998), suggesting that the special characteristics originated from the economic and geographic proximity have significant impact on those two factors. Supplementary, Enright (1998) considers that the characteristics present inside the clusters local environment result in pressures, incentives and capabilities that increase the firms competitiveness comparatively to dispersed competitors, explaining the clustering process in terms of geographically restricted characteristics. Moreover, Solvell et al. (2003) suggests that the competitive advantages emerging from regional clusters may be classified as static and dynamics. According to this perspective, while the agglomeration process triggered and sustained intensively or exclusively by factors like natural resources, low cost labors and government subsidies offers a vulnerable (easy to be copied, substituted or simple eroded by environmental changes) competitive position, clusters based on dynamics characteristics like multi-sectorial externalities, advantages of scale and scope and specific knowledge spillovers are more dynamics and competitive. Extending the arguments presented by Solvell and his colleagues, Andersson et al. (2004) considers that the sustainability of static and dynamic competitive advantages is not strictly determined, arguing that static factors are the main responsible for the emergence of clusters, while the dynamics factors are only developed along the different stages of the cluste r life cycle. Complementing the understanding about the influence of the cluster dynamics on the firms economic performance some authors like Porter (2001); Garnsey and Heffernan (2007); Karlsson (2008) and Mason (2008) describe the existence of a self-reinforcing process originating from the agglomeration externalities that contribute to create a regional virtuous-circle of increasing productivity, competitiveness and value creation. Following that argument, the economic and geographic proximity will stimulate firms to innovate more indeed benefits originating from local capabilities, which will stimulate even more the agglomeration process through the intensification of inter-firm relationships and the attraction of other firms from outside the cluster, which in turn will strength the local capabilities (Blandy, 2003, p. 101). Thus, the dynamics of clusters is expected to be self-reinforced by agglomeration benefits with significant influence on the firms performance. Putting together the arguments associated with the economic impacts experienced by clustered firms indeed the existence of local factors, it is possible to identify and describe the following positive location-specific externalities: Cost savings indeed the geographic proximity with specialized suppliers, labours and distributors; Knowledge-spillovers (intentional and unintentional), since firms inside clusters can benefit from the knowledge dissemination process that may take place especially through inter-firm cooperation, specific linkages and labour mobility; Deliberate joint actions facilitated by the engagement in alliances and partnerships to achieve strategic objectives; Trust relationships, that through the geographic and economic proximity minimize the uncertainty associated with commercial operations, resulting in transactions costs economies; Pressures for higher performance, stimulated by the proximity with competitors; Specific Infrastructure and public goods that are oriented to attend the cluster demands, like roads, ports, laboratories and telecommunication networks; Complementarities, associated with firms in different activities but sharing common factors like raw material, clients and technologies that may enhance the cluster efficiency as whole. Discussing the role of regional clusters in shaping competitive patterns, Tallman et al. (2004) proposes a distinction between the types of competitive advantages emerging from clustered firms: based on traded interdependencies and based on untraded interdependencies. The concept of traded interdependencies is related to the existence of inter-firm transactions inside the cluster, and is observed in formal exchange operations that may take place in form of alliances, commercial operations and acquisitions. On the other hand, untraded interdependencies are related to less tangible effects, and are based on shared knowledge for which no market mechanism exists; with no formal exchange of value for value (Tallman et al. 2004, p. 261). To illustrate the mechanisms by which the untraded interdependencies take place, it is possible to mention unintentional external economies associated with tacit knowledge shared through mechanisms like labor mobility. Those different types of interdependencies, especially untraded, present at the cluster level, represent a source of competitive advantage that is likely to be causal ambiguous (for firms inside and outside the cluster) and high complex in terms of their origins, what consequently constitutes attributes difficult to be replicated by competitors. However, the presence of untraded effects, especially unintentional knowledge spillovers, is viewed Enright (1998) as a constraining factor for firms within clusters, since the establishment of an efficient information flow may limit the firms capacity to obtain monopoly profits from the development of innovations. Complementing the negative effects originating from the clusters dynamics, some authors also describe agglomeration diseconomies that have a negative impact firms located within clusters. For example, congestion effects (Arthur, 1990), institutional sclerosis (Pouder and John, 1996; Pitelis, 2010), rigidities associated with labour mobility and natural resources (Krugman, 1989) and pollution (Fan and Scott, 2003). This way, the dynamics and performance of a cluster is determined by the interplay between positive and negative externalities observed during the different stages of development that a cluster is expected to pass overtime (Wolter, 2003) Limitations in the Cluster Theory Notwithstanding the advances in the cluster theory some questions still remain insufficiently explored. One of the main limitations observed in the current state of the cluster literature is the lack of comparative perspectives to explain the advantages and disadvantages of clusters relatively to other alternative models of organization of economic activities. In his very novel approach, Pitelis (2010) suggests that any perspective trying to explain clusters in terms of absolute advantages is at the very best incomplete. In this context, Pitelis proposes the comparison of clusters vis-ÃÆ'  -vis to markets and hierarchies in order to understand the reasons and conditions that lead firms to engage in intra-clusters relationships, market operations (outside the cluster) or integrate within the firms hierarchy. In fact it is not necessary a great effort to conclude that most of the cluster theory has been developed following a mono-institutional approach (e.g. Porter, 1990, 1998; Saxe nian, 1994; Rosenfeld, 1998; Swann and Sennett, 1998; Schmitz and Nadvi, 1999), while some few exceptions concentrated on transactions costs (e.g. Fujita and Thisse, 1996; Iammarino and McCann, 2006; Takeda et al., 2008) and knowledge creation efficiency (e.g. Hendry et al., 2000; Tracey and Clark, 2003; Reinau, 2007; Kongmanila and Takahashi, 2009) have been drawn on a comparative approaches between clusters and open-market operations. Assuming the arguments proposed by many scholars that clusters are engines of innovation (Davis, 2006, p. 32), the lack of comparative perspectives do not answer the question why clusters are more efficient than markets or the hierarchy to improve the firms innovative capacity (Pitelis, 2010). Thus, despite the wide number of ramifications observed in the cluster theory such as innovative efficiency, productivity, social capital and social interactions, its explicative power remains almost always restricted